Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Turkic Sultan of Delhi, reigned from 1325 to 1351 and left a legacy of both significant achievements and numerous failures. As the eldest son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, the founder of the Tughluq dynasty, he succeeded his father to become the second Sultan of the dynasty. Muhammad bin Tughluq is a controversial figure in history, known for his visionary ideas, military conquests, and highly criticized administrative decisions. His reign was marked by expansionist policies, ambitious reforms, and frequent rebellions.
Early Life and Education
Born in 1300 in Kotla Tolay Khan, Multan (now Pakistan), Muhammad bin Tughluq was the eldest son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq. While little is known about his childhood, it is believed that as a prince, he was provided with a well-rounded education, a privilege expected of an heir to the throne. Historical accounts suggest that he was a highly educated individual with deep knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence, the Quran, philosophy, logic, astronomy, and medicine. This diverse education reflects his intellectual curiosity and his fascination with learning, which he carried throughout his life.
His early years were marked by bravery and military skill. Even before ascending the throne, he had begun to display his military prowess. In 1321–22, under his father’s rule, he was sent to Warangal in the Deccan to suppress revolts by Hindu rajas, which he successfully accomplished. His ability to quell the rebellion enhanced his reputation as a warrior, positioning him as a strong candidate for leadership.
Accession to the Throne and Early Reign
In 1325, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq returned from a military campaign and, while overseeing a parade of war elephants, died in a freak accident when the stage he was seated on collapsed. Muhammad bin Tughluq, his eldest son, ascended the throne as the second Sultan of the Tughluq dynasty. Some historical accounts suggest that the death of Ghiyas-ud-din was not an accident but rather a conspiracy orchestrated by Muhammad, though most modern historians dismiss this claim as unsubstantiated.
As Sultan, Muhammad bin Tughluq faced numerous challenges. His reign saw a series of revolts and rebellions, requiring him to quell uprisings across the vast expanse of his empire. He had to contend with as many as 22 significant revolts, some of which occurred in key regions like the Deccan (1326, 1347), Bengal (1338), Gujarat (1345), and Sindh (1350). These revolts strained the empire and demonstrated the difficulty of maintaining control over a vast and diverse population.
Controversial Administrative Reforms
Muhammad bin Tughluq is perhaps best remembered for his ambitious, yet ill-fated, administrative reforms. His reign was marked by several bold initiatives, including attempts to centralize power and streamline administration, though many of these efforts ended in disaster.
1. Shifting the Capital from Delhi to Devagiri
One of his most controversial decisions was the transfer of the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (later renamed Daulatabad) in 1327. Located in present-day Maharashtra, the move was intended to facilitate better control over the Deccan region and protect the empire from Mongol invasions. To ensure that the new capital was properly populated, Muhammad bin Tughluq ordered the mass migration of the citizens of Delhi, forcing them to travel a distance of 1,500 kilometers. This decision proved disastrous.
Contemporary historians like Barani, Ibn Battuta, and Islamic chroniclers provide grim accounts of the mass migration. The people of Delhi were forced to abandon their homes and belongings to undertake the arduous journey to Devagiri, leaving Delhi desolate. Although the Sultan provided transport and free accommodation for the people at Devagiri, the shift caused widespread suffering. Within a few years, Muhammad bin Tughluq reversed his decision, allowing the citizens to return to Delhi by 1335–37. However, by then, the damage was done: Delhi had lost much of its former glory, and the failed relocation left both the capital and the Sultan’s reputation severely tarnished.
2. Increased Taxation and Peasant Revolts
In 1328–29, Muhammad bin Tughluq increased land taxes in the fertile Doab region between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, hoping to generate more revenue. However, his policies sparked resentment among the already overburdened peasants, leading to widespread revolts. His response was harsh: he ordered his officials to plunder and punish the revolting peasants, further alienating them from his rule.
To make matters worse, the region was struck by a severe famine in 1334–35, which lasted for seven years. The Sultan’s inability to provide adequate relief during the famine only worsened the situation, contributing to the growing discontent among the people.
3. Qarachil Expedition
Another ambitious but failed endeavor was the Qarachil expedition of 1333. Muhammad bin Tughluq launched a military campaign into the Kangra Hills, aiming to expand his territory into the Himalayas. However, the expedition turned into a disaster, resulting in the deaths of around 10,000 soldiers and civilians. This failed campaign further eroded the Sultan’s prestige and left his empire weakened.
Monetary Reforms and Token Currency
Among Muhammad bin Tughluq's many reforms, his monetary policy stands out as one of the most innovative yet ultimately disastrous. He attempted to introduce a token currency system, issuing copper and brass coins with the same value as silver and gold coins. This idea was ahead of its time and could have revolutionized trade and commerce within the empire. However, the lack of proper oversight led to widespread counterfeiting, as people began to mint their own coins, rendering the Sultan’s currency worthless. The failure of the token currency further destabilized the economy and added to the chaos of his reign.
Religious Tolerance and Patronage of Learning
Despite his authoritarian tendencies, Muhammad bin Tughluq was known for his religious tolerance. Unlike some of his predecessors, he did not impose Islamic law on his non-Muslim subjects, and he extended his patronage to Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist scholars. This religious inclusivity was a rare and commendable aspect of his rule, especially in an era marked by religious conflict.
Muhammad bin Tughluq was also a patron of learning and the arts. His court attracted scholars, poets, and intellectuals from across the Islamic world. He had a deep interest in astronomy, astrology, and medicine, and even established an observatory in Delhi. His reign saw the flourishing of Sufi saints and scholars, who contributed to the cultural and intellectual vibrancy of the empire.
Later Years and Decline of the Empire
As the years went on, Muhammad bin Tughluq’s ambitious policies and military campaigns began to take a toll on the empire. The repeated revolts, failed expeditions, and economic mismanagement weakened the Delhi Sultanate. By the late 1340s, many of the regions that had once been under his control, such as Bengal, Gujarat, and the Deccan, began to assert their independence.
In 1351, while on an expedition to Sindh to quell yet another rebellion, Muhammad bin Tughluq fell ill and died en route to Thatta. His death marked the end of a tumultuous reign that left a mixed legacy.
Legacy
Muhammad bin Tughluq remains one of the most controversial and enigmatic rulers in Indian history. On the one hand, he was a visionary leader, known for his intellectual prowess and his attempts to implement progressive reforms. On the other hand, his reign was marred by failed policies, poor execution, and harsh authoritarianism. His ambitious projects, such as the shifting of the capital and the introduction of token currency, were far ahead of their time but ultimately failed due to a lack of practical foresight and planning.
Despite his many failures, Muhammad bin Tughluq’s reign was significant for its contributions to the cultural and intellectual life of the subcontinent. His encouragement of scholarship, religious tolerance, and patronage of the arts left a lasting impact on Indian society.
In summary, Muhammad bin Tughluq was a complex ruler whose reign was a mixture of bold vision and tragic miscalculation. His legacy is a reminder of the fine balance between ambition and pragmatism in leadership—a balance he often failed to maintain.
